Author: Yun Wang

Translator: Yingxian Wang

The Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China was the first professional institution for lexicography in modern China. It was officially established in 1928, but its predecessor can be traced back to 1913. The institution was led by the first group of modern Chinese linguists, who worked under extremely difficult conditions and made important contributions to the promotion of vernacular Chinese and the standardization of Chinese phonetics. The main achievements of the Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China include the Commonly Used Characters with National Pronunciation, New Kangxi Dictionary Index with National Pronunciation, National Language Dictionary, Dictionary of Learned Culture, Homophonic Dictionary, and so on. In 1956, the Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China was merged into the Language Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Later, the Modern Chinese Dictionary was published, which was based on the personnel of the Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China and the materials they collected, and it is still in use today. The National Language Dictionary is also still in use in Taiwan.

The solid foundation work and the rigorous and meticulous organizational plan of the Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China are inseparable. In the List of the Compilation Bureau of the Great Dictionary of China compiled in 1931, we can learn about its organization and work plan.

“Organizational Outline” December of the 19th year of the Republic of China (1930) revised and enlarged.

According to the procedures of the entire book project, our department is divided into five parts: collection, investigation, compilation, editing, and statistics.

(A) Collection Department specializes in collecting materials such as various calligraphy and paintings, special books, and newspapers, both ancient and modern. The methods include marking, cutting and pasting, or recording on cards, with each word on a card. All ancient and modern single characters, as well as compound words or idioms of more than two characters, are collected, striving to obtain their origins and changes over time. Therefore, it is necessary to provide examples from original texts and create indexes. Any mistakes found will also be corrected. Based on the materials used, the Collection Department is divided into two groups:

Outline of the Organization - Revised in December of the 19th year of the Republic of China (1930)

According to the procedures of the entire book work, this department is divided into five parts: collection, investigation, arrangement, editing, and statistics.

(A) Collection Section: Collects materials such as ancient and modern calligraphy and painting, professional books, newspapers, etc. The methods used are either marking with ink, cutting and pasting, or copying, with each word on a card. All single characters, as well as compound words or idioms with two or more characters, are collected to ensure that their origins are obtained and their evolution is clear. Therefore, examples from the original books are required, and an index is prepared. Any errors found are also corrected. Based on the materials used, they are divided into two groups:

Group One (Dictionary Group): This group focuses on books similar to dictionaries. Depending on the different methods of collection work, it can be divided into several subgroups, such as: (1) Shuowen Section: This subgroup includes ancient inscriptions such as oracle bones and bronze inscriptions, as well as books such as San Cang and Zi Lin.

(2) Group Ya Section: (a) Books such as Er Yi and Fang Yan, as well as Pi Ya; (b) books similar to category books, such as Pian Ya, Die Ya, and Tong Ya.

(3) Phonology and Meaning Section: (a) Books such as Classic Annotations, All Classic Phonology and Meaning, and Thirteen Classic Commentaries and other annotations of ancient Chinese classics that relate to phonology and meaning; (b) books such as Commentary on the Classics and Reading Magazine, as well as books similar to Qing Jing Jie, are all included in this subgroup; (c) books such as Translation Names Collection, Fayuan Zhulin, etc. (This subgroup and the “Professional Book Section” of Group Three overlap and need to coordinate their work.)

(4) Rhyme Book Section: This subgroup includes all rhyme books after Qieyun. (The materials collected in this subgroup can also be used as the basis for compiling a national phonetic dictionary and will be sorted separately.)

(5) Colloquial and Dialect Section: This subgroup includes books such as Tong Su Bian, Yue Yan, New Dialects, and dialects in local chronicles, as well as books related to dialect surveys in recent years. (Ancient dialect books such as Yang Xiong’s Fang Yan are included in the “Group Ya Section,” but can also be merged with this group.)

(6) General Dictionary Section: (a) Books such as Yu Pian, Lei Pian, and Kangxi Dictionary; (b) books such as Ci Yuan, Chinese Dictionary, Han-Ying Dictionary, etc.

(7) Specialized Dictionary Section: (a) books related to social sciences; (b) books related to natural sciences. (When necessary, foreign language dictionaries or professional books can be selected for this subgroup.)

Group Two (Books and Periodicals Group){: .border} All books and periodicals except those belonging to the “Dictionary Group” belong to this group. It focuses on literary works written in modern language since the Tang and Song dynasties (after the 9th century), such as poetry, lyrics, plays, vernacular novels, and ballads. It also includes the language records and letters of Buddhist and Confucian disciples, as well as modern books and periodicals. Since the materials collected are mainly from the Song Dynasty onwards, the works written in modern language are the main focus of this group. Classical Chinese literature, which has a historical origin, mostly originated before the Tang Dynasty, so its materials are mostly included in the “Dictionary Group,” except for historical, institutional, social customs, and academic terms that emerged later, which need not be repeated here. Since colloquial language is generally not considered to be literary, books such as dictionaries that focus on it are not commonly collected. Therefore, this group focuses on literary works.

Books can also be further categorized into different groups, such as:

(1) Language records group, including works like Ancient Anecdotes of Eminent Monks{: .uwavy}28{: .sup}, Record of the Lamp Transmission{: .uwavy}29{: .sup}, Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow{: .uwavy}30{: .sup}, and Collected Sayings of Master Zhu{: .uwavy}31{: .sup}.

(2) Vernacular novel group, including (a) works like Pinghua from the Song and Yuan dynasties, Water Margin{: .uwavy}, and Dream of the Red Chamber{: .uwavy}; and (b) works from the new literary movement and translations, including new poetry and plays.

(3) Drama group, including (a) sanqu, zaju, and chuanqi from the Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and quhua; and (b) operas like pihuang and bangzi, and opera critiques.

(4) Folk song and proverb group, including Tang dynasty folk literature from Dunhuang, folk songs, ballads, and riddles.

(5) Poetry group, including works like the poems of Hanshan 32{: .sup}, Sixty Masters in Poetry{: .uwavy}33{: .sup}, and The Drunken Man’s Pleasure in Playing the Qin: Miscellaneous Pages Outside the Collection{: .uwavy}34{: .sup}, as well as books on poetry and poetics.

(6) Specialized works group, including (a) specialized works by various philosophers and scholars from the classic texts (special terms are selected, which were not noted by scholars of earlier times); and (b) official histories like Records of the Three Kingdoms{: .uwavy}36{: .sup}, History of the Northern and Southern Dynasties{: .uwavy}37{: .sup}, and Old Book of Tang{: .uwavy}38{: .sup}, as well as unofficial histories like Dreams of the Capital{: .uwavy}39{: .sup} and Yuan dian zhang{: .uwavy}40{: .sup}. (c) Collected works, mainly essays and miscellaneous pieces. This group cooperates with the (a) group of the “Sound and Meaning Group,” but the “Sound and Meaning Group” mainly collects annotations from various scholars, while this group selects words directly

(Section B) Investigation Department{: .border} Formulate regulations and forms for investigation, and investigate the languages of the entire country. Divided into three groups:

First group (dialect group){: .border} Divide the country into several areas according to different dialects in each region, and assign one designated investigator for each area to complete the investigation within a specified period. (This group should cooperate with other academic institutions.)

Second group (phonetics group){: .border} Measure the tone and other aspects of each word in the dialects with machines, and record them using phonetic symbols. (This group should cooperate with other academic institutions.)

Third group (proper noun group){: .border} Investigate proper nouns used in local customs and certain professions, and illustrate them in drawings. (This group also serves as a supplement and preparation for compiling “Specialized Dictionaries”.)

(Section C) Compilation Department{: .border} Sort out the materials obtained by the above two departments at any time, and divide them into three groups:

First group (alphabetical group){: .border} Spell out each word with the National Phonetic Alphabet (both versions are used), arranged in the order of the first 40 letters of the first version. The second and following letters of each word are arranged in the order of the first version. Words with the same pronunciation are arranged in the order of “four tones”, and words with the same tone are arranged in the order of Chinese character forms. When compiling, an index based on the usual order of Roman letters is attached.

Second group (radical group){: .border} Temporarily arrange them according to the radicals in the Kangxi Dictionary (but the radicals should be simplified and their order improved); at the same time, collect and study the most convenient method for inspecting Chinese characters{: .udbl}.

Third group (semantic group){: .border} Classify the meanings of each word, and the classification method can refer to books such as Rogers Thesaurus{: .uwavyr} of English Words and Phrases. (This group’s work can: 1. sort out China’s “Group of Elegance”46{: .sup}, and obtain language roots through phonetic and semantic interpretation, making the changes in word meanings more clear; 2. sort out and improve China’s “Classics”47{: .sup}; 3. be of great convenience for investigating dialects; 4. serve as the basis for compiling the “Chinese Encyclopedia Dictionary”.)

Section D: Compilation of Sections Based on the results of the previous three sections and following the format of a dictionary, this section will be compiled in sequence. It will be divided into five groups:

Group 1 (Phonetic Dictionary Group): Editing and reviewing the national pronunciation and its historical development for single characters or compound words. This group will be responsible for the “pronunciation” section of the large dictionary. The book should be divided into sections, such as:

(1) National Pronunciation Dictionary: This book will include all characters and their pronunciations from ancient and modern dictionaries, rhyme books, other books that mention characters and their pronunciations, modern dialect characters, simplified characters, specialized characters for various professions, village and street names, and specially created characters for scientific or transliteration purposes. All common or rare characters, still in use or already obsolete, will be collected to ensure completeness. The source of each character and its pronunciation will be clearly stated: (a) those from rhyme books (with similar characters in dictionaries) will be listed with their “fanqie” (pronunciation equivalents), “initials,” “rhyme categories,” and “tone categories”; (b) those from other books will be listed according to the original text, whether fanqie, direct pronunciation, or explanatory notes; (c) those from dialects or similar sources will be noted with their phonetic symbols (international phonetic alphabet or other dialect pronunciation symbols and romanized characters); (d) those without a clear origin for their pronunciation (such as specially created scientific characters) will simply state their character origin. A standard pronunciation will also be established for each character: (a) for all characters and pronunciations approved and published by the National Language Commission for Unified Preparation, they will be followed without exception; (b) for characters and pronunciations not included in the national pronunciation dictionary, their standard pronunciations will be determined based on old pronunciations or dialects, following the rules for the conversion of national pronunciation to old and dialect pronunciations. For characters with multiple pronunciations, their meanings will also be noted. The phonetic symbols will follow the example of the national pronunciation dictionary, using both the phonetic symbols and the national romanization system (or even the international phonetic alphabet).

(2) Revised National Pronunciation Dictionary: This book will be compiled based on the request of the Ministry of Education’s National Language Committee and can be jointly managed with the above book. It will focus on the revisions to the National Pronunciation Dictionary announced by the Ministry of Education, including: (a) adding new characters, common characters, and dialect characters, selecting those with the most common usage. All characters from books such as Shuowen Jiezi and Guangyun (or from the revised Yùpiàn Jíyùn) will be included; (b) revising pronunciations: any pronunciations that do not match the newly established Beijing standard pronunciation will be revised. For synonyms with more than two pronunciations, the most commonly used ones will be selected and marked with the small character “youdú” (another reading), followed by the national romanization system below the phonetic symbols. The remaining format will be the same as in the old version. The order of characters will also follow the Kangxi Dictionary, as determined by the second group (radical group) of the Compilation Department.”

When compiling this book, the author first wrote down the information on cards, added brief explanations, and arranged them according to their pronunciations. The result was the following book:

Homophonic Dictionary of Standard Chinese Characters{: .uwavy}

This book follows the arrangement of the first group (the alphabetical group) used by the editorial department. (The previous book, which was organized based on the form of Chinese characters, was the Leipian{: .uwavy} by Song Sima Guang. This book, on the other hand, is based on the phonology of standard Chinese, similar to the Jiyun{: .uwavy}55{: .sup} by Song Dingdu. The following book is similar to the Sòng Lǐbù Yùnlüè{: .uwavy}56{: .sup}.)

Before these two books were completed, the author first compiled the following book:

Commonly Used Characters in Standard Chinese{: .uwavy}. This book also arranges characters with the same pronunciation into four tones, and is limited to commonly used characters and common pronunciations, specifically for the use of the general education community.

(3) Homophonic Dictionary of Standard Chinese Characters with Neutral Tones{: .uwavy}

This book includes commonly used characters with local pronunciations annotated with “neutral tone” letters, which are then compared with standard Chinese pronunciations. The purpose of this book is: (a) to facilitate the practice of learning standard Chinese in various regions for the purpose of unification; (b) to provide a reference for experts; (c) to help rural people learn to read (however, since the pronunciation of some characters in local dialects differs from standard Chinese, both pronunciations are provided to show the importance of linguistic unity).

Group Two (General Dictionary Group){: .border} is divided into sections with the book, as follows:

(1) The Great Dictionary of China{: .uwavy} - this section is the main focus of this work. There are detailed explanations in the book. Its compilation method is to take all the materials obtained from the first three parts and use them as references. It also involves entrusting experts to choose and supplement the content, and to write the articles according to different categories. Its style is as follows:

(a) The first part is to collect all the single characters in the National Phonetic Alphabet Dictionary{: .uwavy}, arrange them according to the National Language Homophonic Dictionary{: .uwavy}, and list the historical changes of the character, such as (i) character form, including oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, Zhou characters, small seal script, official script, cursive script, variant characters, and colloquial characters, selecting those that can represent the character’s form changes, and then projecting them in order; (ii) character pronunciation, including the assumed Zhou dynasty pronunciation, representing the Guangyun{: .uwavy} of the Sui and Tang dynasties (including the Rhyme Summary{: .uwavy} and Peiwen’s Poetic Rhyme{: .uwavy}), representing the Zhongyuan Phonology{: .uwavy} and Hongwu Zhengyun{: .uwavy} of the Yuan and Ming dynasties (including the Five Element Vowels{: .uwavy}), listing the “fanqie” (phonetic analysis), “sound knuckles,” “equal calls,” and “rhyme groups,” and marking them with the romanized Chinese characters or international phonetic symbols; then following the standard pronunciation (such as in the National Phonetic Alphabet Dictionary{: .uwavy}), and adding important dialect pronunciations from various regions, as well as references to Annan, Japan, and Korea.

(b) The second part is to collect the materials on compound words derived from the extension or borrowing of single characters, and remove the irrelevant materials. The compound words that must be collected are: (i) commonly used in spoken language, self-contained and cannot be understood from the words alone; (ii) classical words that need to know their origin; (iii) dialect words that need to know their source; (iv) important personal names, place names, and book titles; (v) various scientific terms that are suitable for reference in high school and college courses; and (vi) other nouns or idioms related to history, citizens, social customs, etc., that require explanation. As for the detailed explanation of the compound words, separate rules are made, but attention must be paid to: (i) linking them with the extension or borrowing of single character pronunciation and meaning; (ii) explaining the reasons for the multiple meanings of a word and verifying the root of the language, and presenting the historical changes in order; (iii) for things like names and systems, the original source must be described, and illustrations or charts should be attached.

This group can take into account the needs of various aspects, and compile a relatively simple version, with each section designated as left (the original version is vertical, this version should refer to “down”):

(2) “Commonly Used Mandarin Vocabulary” section (compiled at the request of the Mandarin Language Committee of the Ministry of Education, jointly organized with the first group). The book focuses on standardizing the character forms and correct pronunciations of common Mandarin words, and compiling them with their corresponding parts of speech when using a uniform phonetic system. When not necessary, no annotations are added, and annotations are also made as concise as possible. (This book can be cross-referenced with the “Commonly Used National Phonetic Symbols” section).

(3) “People’s Dictionary” section. This book searches for words commonly used in daily life and is intended for the use of the general public with some education.

(4) “National Phonetic Dictionary” section. This book is slightly more advanced than the “People’s Dictionary” and is intended for use in secondary education.

(5) “University Dictionary” section (there is also a plan for this). This book is even more advanced (similar to the French “Larousse Small Dictionary” 65 and the British “Webster’s University Dictionary” 66) and is intended for general students who have graduated from secondary or tertiary education, as well as secondary school teacher education.

The third group (the Chinese-foreign language comparison dictionary group) uses the same format as one of the dictionaries in the previous groups, but translates the words into foreign languages word-for-word. For example:

(1) “Chinese-French Dictionary” section (there is also a plan for this). (2) “Chinese-English Dictionary” section. All existing publications are collected and consulted for revision.

The fourth group (specialized dictionary group) invites or commissions various experts in different fields to compile specialized dictionaries, with detailed plans to be made later (this can be postponed).

The fifth group (encyclopedic dictionary group) will be planned in detail later (this can also be postponed).”

(Wu) Statistics Department{: .border} This is a supplementary work of the Chinese Dictionary, which can be carried out simultaneously with the three works of collecting, investigating, and organizing, or simultaneously with the Compilation Department. It is divided into two groups:

The first group (vocabulary group){: .border} adopts several books and newspapers, records the frequency of each word, and then conducts statistics to classify them into “commonly used,” “occasionally used,” “rarely used,” etc., compiling a vocabulary for the selection of words in ordinary education and popular education books as a standard. (The end of this group’s work is closely related to the scope of word selection in various simplified dictionaries in the second group of the compilation department.)

The second group (chart group){: .border} uses various statistical methods to make various charts based on the materials obtained by the investigation department, such as dialect distribution maps, dialect comparison tables, etc. (The changes in ancient and modern words, pronunciations, etc. can also be made into charts as appropriate, based on the materials collected and compiled by the two departments.)

There are a total of five works and fifteen groups in the above, which constitute the complete organization of this place.”

From the above organizational outline, it can be seen that in the organization and work plan of the compilation of the Chinese Dictionary, it not only follows the long history of China, but also includes the current and foreign streams of language; it not only establishes new standards for language and writing, but also takes into account the needs of education, scientific research, and other aspects; it not only uses original methods such as collecting and cutting, but also introduces Western modern scientific methods such as statistics and charts. It can be said that it is the culmination of the Chinese language and is beneficial to contemporary and future generations, which can influence the development of world language and writing. However, due to unfortunate circumstances such as funding, war, and organizational changes, the achievements of the Chinese Dictionary compilation department have been interrupted several times, and many of its ideas have not been realized. Nevertheless, its achievements over several decades have been astounding.

Note: The organizational outline is transcribed as written, with only some punctuation modifications, and some expressions reflect the language habits of the time.

Sou (搜): It means “search” or “look for”.

Gouyi (勾乙): It is a symbol that looks like the character “乙” and is used to indicate that a certain sentence or phrase should be copied and used as a reference material from newspapers or books.

Yi Lu (迻录): It means “copy” or “transcribe”.

Shuo Wen (说文): This is a simplified name for “Shuo Wen Jie Zi”. The author of this book is Xu Shen, who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty. It was the first systematic analysis of Chinese characters and their origins, and one of the earliest dictionaries in the world.

San Cang (三苍): It is the collective name for three books, namely “Cang Jie” by Qin Li Si (seven chapters), “Yuan Li” by Zhao Gao (six chapters), and “Bo Xue” by Hu Wu Jing (seven chapters). “Cang Jie”, “Yuan Li”, and “Bo Xue” were all books on small seal script and regular script that were introduced after the unification of Chinese characters during the Qin dynasty. During the Han dynasty, these three books were combined into one, and each chapter consisted of sixty characters. It was called “Cang Jie Pian”, also known as “San Cang”.

Zi Lin (字林): It is an ancient dictionary written by Lv Chen during the Jin dynasty. It contains 12,824 characters arranged according to the 540 radicals in the “Shuo Wen Jie Zi”. The original book has been lost.

Er Yi (尔疋): It refers to “Er Ya”, the first dictionary in China. “Er” means “near” (later written as “迩”) and “Ya” means “correct”. In this context, it specifically refers to “elegant speech”, which means a standard language that conforms to the norms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

Fang Yan (方言): It is the first dialect dictionary in China, compiled by Yang Xiong of the Western Han dynasty.

Pi Ya (埤雅): It was written by Lu Dian during the Northern Song dynasty. It consists of 20 volumes and is a supplement to “Er Ya”. It specifically explains the names of objects.

Pian Ya (骈雅): It is a book that explains the pronunciation and meaning of disyllabic words, written by Zhu Mouyao of the Ming dynasty.

Die Ya (叠雅): It was written by Shi Menglan of the Qing dynasty. The book consists of 13 volumes and collects the repeated characters used in ancient classics, annotations, and comments. The meanings of the same characters are categorized and explained according to the format of “Er Ya Shi Xun”.

Tong Ya (通雅): It is an ancient encyclopedia-style book written by Fang Yizhi of the Ming dynasty. It consists of 52 volumes and is included in the Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature.

Jing Dian Shu Wen (经典释文): It consists of 30 volumes and is a book that explains the text, sound, and meaning of Confucian classics. It was written by Lu Deming of the Tang dynasty.

Yi Qie Jing Yin Yi (一切经音义): It is a specialized book on the study of exegesis, sound, and meaning of Confucian classics, compiled by Shi Xuan Ying and Shi Hui Lin of the Tang dynasty.

Classic Interpretation: Consists of 30 volumes, it is a book that explains the meaning and pronunciation of Confucian classics. It was written by Lu Deming during the Tang Dynasty.

Comprehensive Interpretation of All Buddhist Sutras: A specialized book on phonology and semantics compiled by the Tang Dynasty monks Shixuan Ying and Shihuilin.

Annotations and Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics: Compiled during the Qing Dynasty by Ruan Yuan, it is a collection of annotations and commentaries on the thirteen Confucian classics, consisting of 416 volumes, and is a frequently consulted reference book for scholars of literature and history. (Annotations and Commentaries: Refers to the combined term for annotations and commentaries. Annotations refer to explanations of the text, also known as interpretations, notes, or explanations of chapters and sentences. Commentaries refer to explanations of the annotations, also known as exegesis, correct interpretation, or commentarial interpretation.)

An Explanation of the Meanings of the Classics: Written by Wang Yinzh, it consists of 32 volumes and provides an important reference for reading the classics by explaining errors in the text, supplementary text, missing text, and sentence structures found in a large number of classics, historical records, and biographies based on his father’s commentary and his own insights.

The Miscellaneous Journal of Reading: Written by Wang Niansun during the Qing Dynasty, it is the author’s research findings on ancient works such as Yi Zhou Shu, Zhan Guo Ce, Shi Ji, Han Shu, Guan Zi, and Xun Zi.

The Continuation of the Qing Dynasty’s Explanation of the Classics: Also known as the “Imperial Qing Explanation of the Classics” or “Xuehai Hall Explanation of the Classics”, it was compiled and edited by Ruan Yuan during the Qing Dynasty. This book is a collection of the great achievements in the interpretation of Confucian classics and is a comprehensive summary of Qianjia academic achievements. It was later edited, collated, proofread, and published by Xia Xiushu, Ruan Fu, and others. The “Continuation of the Qing Dynasty’s Explanation of the Classics”, also known as the “Nanqing Academy’s Explanation of the Classics”, was compiled by Wang Xianqian.

The Collection of Translation Names: A Buddhist dictionary compiled by the monk Fayun in Jingde Temple in Pingjiang (now Suzhou, Jiangsu Province) during the Southern Song Dynasty. It consists of 7 volumes and 64 articles.

The Jewel Forest of Dharma Realms: A Buddhist book written by the Tang Dynasty monk Dao Shi. The book is divided into 100 chapters and 668 sections, giving an overview of Buddhist ideology, terminology, and numerical symbolism, and citing various sutras, precepts, doctrines, and biographies. It comprises more than 400 different works.

The Qieyun: A rhyme book written by Lu Fayan during the Sui Dynasty that reflects the Chinese phonology of that time.

The Popular Compilation: A collection of various popular Chinese words, dialects (including words, phrases, idioms, and proverbs), categorized into 38 sections, including astronomy, geography, seasons, ethics, officialdom, politics, literature, etc. Each section comprises one volume, totaling 38 volumes and 5,456 entries.

Yue Yan: A language document that reflects the dialects, folk songs, and proverbs of the Yue region during the Qing Dynasty in China.

New Dialects: A dialect book written by Zhang Binglin.

Yupian: the first Chinese dictionary of regular script arranged by radicals, compiled by Gu Yewang of the Southern Dynasties.

Leipian: a dictionary of Chinese characters arranged by radicals, compiled by Sima Guang of the Song Dynasty.

Zhina Cidian: a Japanese-Chinese dictionary compiled by Ishiyama Fukuzhi in 1912.

Guzunsu Yulu: a compilation of sayings by Buddhist Zen monks. Consisting of 48 volumes, it was compiled by Zecang, a Zen monk of the Southern Song Dynasty, and the term “guzunsu” refers to respected predecessors, which is synonymous with “elder” or “great virtuoso”. The book compiles the sayings of dozens of “guzunsu” from the Huairang school of the Nanyue lineage (one of the two major Zen schools of the Huineng lineage) from the middle Tang Dynasty to the early Southern Song Dynasty, hence the name.

Chuandenglu: also known as Denglu, is a work from the Zen Buddhism period of the Song Dynasty, which records the transmission of the Dharma from generation to generation in Zen Buddhism. “Deng” or “Chuandeng” refers to the transmission of the Dharma to people, like the transmission of a torch, continuously passed on.

Jinsi Lu: a work compiled based on the philosophical system of Zhu Xi and Lu Zuqian, which has an important position in the history of Neo-Confucianism.

Zhu Zi Yu Lei: a compilation of dialogues between Zhu Xi and his disciples during the Song Dynasty.

Hanshan Shide Shi: a collection of poems by the famous Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk Hanshan and his disciple Shide. Hanshan lived in the secluded cave of Hanyan on the Tianzhu Mountain by the Xi River, hence his name, while Shide was said to have been abandoned by the roadside as a child and was later picked up by Fenggan, a Zen master of the Guoqing Temple on the Tianzhu Mountain, hence his name “Shide”. The two monks, along with Fenggan, are known as the “Three Sages of the Tianzhu Mountain”.

Liu Shi Ji Ci: a collection of ci poems compiled around the end of the Song Dynasty and up to the end of the Southern Song Dynasty.

Zuiweng Qin Qu Wai Pian: a collection of poems by Ouyang Xiu. “Qin Qu Wai Pian” is the name given by Song Dynasty booksellers to part of the collection.

Xiaoxue: in ancient times, “Xiaoxue” referred to schools for children to learn to read, as opposed to entering a university after the hairpin ceremony. As children had to recognize characters before entering primary school, later “Xiaoxue” came to mean the study of characters. In the late Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xin wrote “Qilue”, which classified books on character interpretation as “Xiaoxue”. After the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the scope of “Xiaoxue” expanded to include the study of characters, phonology, and character interpretation.

The Three Kingdoms in Shiji, Han Shu and Sanguozhi: refers to the three books of Shiji, Han Shu, and Sanguozhi.

Jin Shu and the History of the Northern and Southern Dynasties: Jin Shu is one of the “Twenty-Four Histories” of China, co-authored by 21 authors including Fang Xuanling of the Tang Dynasty. “The History of the Northern and Southern Dynasties” refers to the combined works of Nan Shi and Bei Shi, edited and compiled by Li Yanshou of the Tang Dynasty, and later completed by the Song, Qi, Liang, Chen, Northern Qi, Wei, Zhou, and Sui Dynasties. Compared to older historical works, this one is more concise.

Old Book of Tang: one of the “Twenty-Four Histories”. It consists of 200 volumes, including 20 volumes of “Annals”, 30 volumes of “Treatises”, and 150 volumes of “Biographies”. Originally named “Book of Tang”, it was renamed “Old Book of Tang” after the publication of “New Book of Tang” edited by Song Qi and Ouyang Xiu. It was completed in the second year of the Kaiyun period of the Later Jin Dynasty (945 AD).

Dreams of the Capital of the East: a collection of essays in the form of notes by Meng Yuanlao of the Song Dynasty. It was written in the second year of the Jingkang period of Emperor Qin Zong (1127 AD) and is a work that describes the customs and culture of the capital city of Kaifeng during the Northern Song Dynasty.

Yuan Dianzhang: a classification and compilation of laws and regulations in the Yuan Dynasty before 1322 AD, also known as “The Great Yuan Code of Government”. The book is divided into ten categories including imperial edicts, sacred policies, court laws, and departmental laws, with a total of sixty volumes, recording events up to the seventh year of the Yanyou period.

Record of Daily Knowledge: the representative work of Gu Yanwu, a famous scholar and thinker in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, with a great influence on later generations. The book is a large academic note written after months and years of accumulation and refinement, and it is the result of Gu Yanwu’s “studying ancient works, taking notes at any time, and classifying them into a book after a long time”.

Records of Study in the Eastern Academy: a collection of notes on reading and studying by Chen Li, a famous scholar in Lingnan during the Qing Dynasty. It was originally intended to be 25 volumes, divided into classics, history, philosophy, and elementary studies, but the ten volumes on history were not completed.

A New Account of the Tales of the World: a collection of literary anecdotes written in classical Chinese during the Southern Dynasty, which is generally believed to have been written by Liu Yiqing of the Southern Dynasty’s Linchuan, or organized by him and his followers. It is also known as “The Worldly Account”. Its content mainly records the words, deeds, and anecdotes of some famous scholars from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties.

Comprehensive Records of the Taiping Era: the first general collection of ancient Chinese non-fiction novels. It is a large book written by Song Dynasty scholars, consisting of 500 volumes and 10 volumes of contents. It mainly draws on historical stories from the Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Song Dynasty, as well as Daoist, Buddhist, and

Tea Fragrance Room Cong Chao: A collection of writings compiled by the famous Qing dynasty Confucian scholar Yu Yue in his later years.

Qun Ya: A general term for ancient dictionaries in the system of Er Ya. Such as Guang Ya, Pi Ya, Er Ya Yi, Pian Ya, Tong Ya, Bie Ya, Bi Ya, Die Ya, etc.

Lei Shu: A kind of reference book that collects materials from various fields or a certain field and is arranged by category for easy searching and reference.

Fanqie: A method of phonetic notation created by ancient Chinese scholars after the “straight pronunciation” and “reading if” methods. It is also called “reverse”, “cut”, “flip”, “reverse language”, etc. The basic rule of fanqie is to use two Chinese characters to give the pronunciation of one character. The initial sound is taken from the upper character and the vowel and tone are taken from the lower character.

Sheng Niu: A term in phonetics, also known as Niu or Yin Niu. It refers to the initial consonant of a syllable.

Yun Bu: Yun, including the main vowel, rhyme ending, and tone, is different from Yun Mu and Yun Bu. Yun Mu includes the initial consonant, main vowel, and rhyme ending, but not the tone. Yun Bu refers to the classification of rhyming words, including the main vowel and rhyme ending. It is the basis of rhyming books, and no matter which dynasty compiles a rhyming book, it always includes Yun Bu and arranges characters according to rhymes.

Deng Hu: A concept in traditional Chinese phonetics mainly used to refer to the medial system of Middle Chinese, first applied to rhyme charts. The rhyme chart classifies similar rhymes in the rhyme book into a large category called “she”, and then divides each she into four dengs based on the difference in the medial sound, with each deng further divided into open and closed sounds, making a total of eight small categories.

Zhuyin Fuhao: Chinese phonetic symbols, also known as Zhuyin letters, are symbols designed for phonetic annotation of Chinese characters. Based on the phonetic letters of Zhang Taiyan, they were developed by the Chinese Language Unification Society in 1913 and officially promulgated by the Ministry of Education of the Beiyang Government in 1918. In 1919, the National Phonetic Alphabet Dictionary (Old National Phonetics) was printed, using Zhuyin letters to mark national phonetics, and the order of the letters was revised based on the sound theory: b, p, m, f, d, t, n, l, g, k, h, j, q, x, zh, ch, sh, r, z, c, s, yu, yi, yun, a, o, e, ai, ei, ao, ou, an, en, ang, eng, er.

Jiaogai Guoyin Dictionary: Published by the Commercial Press in 1921. This book is a revised version of the 1919 edition of the National Phonetic Alphabet Dictionary, with revisions to some pronunciations and the spelling of Zhuyin letters. The book contains over 13,000 characters arranged by radical with only phonetic annotation and no definitions. The phonetic notation is based on the sound, rhyme, opening-closing distinction, and tone of the old readings according to the book “Yin Yun Chan Wei”, with the initials based on the 36 phonetic letters, and the rhymes based on the rhyme sections of “Shi Yun”.

Kangxi Dictionary: A book published during the Kangxi era of the Qing dynasty. The authors include Zhang Yushu, Chen Tingjing, and others. It was revised and expanded based on two books from the Ming dynasty, Mei Yingzuo’s “Zihui” and Zhang Zilie’s “Zhengzitong”. The dictionary uses a radical classification method and arranges characters by stroke count. The entire dictionary is divided into twelve volumes, identified by the twelve Earthly Branches. Each volume is further divided into three sections: upper, middle, and lower, and arranges the rhyme table and corresponding characters according to rhyme, tone, and syllable, with a total of 47,035 Chinese characters recorded. It is one of the main reference materials for Chinese character research.

Jiyun: An ancient phonetic book compiled in the Song dynasty that arranges Chinese characters by their sound.

Liyun Brief: In the early Song dynasty, when the revised “Qieyun” was being compiled into “Guangyun,” the Ministry of Rites, which was responsible for the imperial examinations, issued a simpler version called “Yunlue” to suit the needs of the exams. It underwent several revisions and was renamed “Liyun Brief.”

Runyin: The sounds and rhymes missing from the phonetic symbols used in Chinese dialects.

Zhòu (large seal) script: Also known as Dazhuan, named after its inscription in the “Shizhoupian” character book.

Yunhui Juyao: An important rhyme book written and published during the Yuan dynasty by Huang Gongshao and Xiong Zhong. It records about 12,700 Chinese character heads.

Peiwen Shiyun: An official rhyme book used for the imperial examinations in the Qing dynasty. Candidates who wrote test poems in the examination hall were required to follow the rules of this standard rhyme book, which served a similar purpose as the Song dynasty’s “Liyun Brief.” “Peiwen Shiyun” and “Peiwen Yunfu” were both compiled and published between the 43rd (1704) and 55th (1716) years of the Kangxi reign. “Peiwen Shiyun” is divided into four tones: flat, rising, departing, and entering, with a total of 10,235 characters recorded in 106 rhymes (flat tones are further divided into upper and lower).

Zhongyuan Yin Yun: This is a specialized book on the rhyme and music of Beijing Opera (Northern Drama) written by Zhou Deqing in the Yuan Dynasty. It is the earliest book in China that deals with the rhyme and music of Beijing Opera. The book mainly includes three aspects: rhyme and music charts, “examples of using correct language in composing lyrics,” and “ten methods of composing lyrics.” “Zhongyuan Yin Yun” has had an extremely profound influence on later generations, both in the field of phonology and the theory of opera.

Hongwu Zheng Yun: This is an official rhyme book compiled by 11 people including Le Shaofeng and Song Lian on behalf of the Ming Taizu in the eighth year of the Hongwu era (1375 AD), with a total of 16 volumes.

Wufang Yuan Yin: This is a type of dictionary written by Fan Tengfeng in the Qing Dynasty, which was prevalent throughout the country during the Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China.

Annan: Annan was the ancient name of Vietnam. The name Annan comes from the Tang Dynasty’s An Nan Protectorate.

Larousse Pocket Dictionary: This is the French “Larousse Dictionary.”

Webster’s University Dictionary: This refers to the “Webster’s Dictionary,” which was renamed the “Webster’s International Dictionary” in 1890, revised and renamed the “Webster’s New International Dictionary” in 1909, and published a second edition with additions and revisions in 1934. This edition contains 550,000 entries, 36,000 place names, 13,000 personal names, and 5,000 abbreviations.