The National Language Movement began in the late 19th century. At a time when China faced internal and external crises, intellectuals believed that the country’s backwardness was largely due to its citizens lacking proper education, and literacy was essential for education. At that time, China had no unified script, and various regional dialects formed distinct systems. These reformers started by developing tools for phonetic notation and pronunciation to promote a National Language Movement, eventually achieving standardization of the national language and the spread of education. This movement, led by a group of intellectuals and technocrats, holds profound historical significance.

The first phase of the National Language Movement was the phonetic notation movement, primarily originating in the southeastern coastal regions. Western missionaries had created a “phonetic script” using Roman letters to publish the Bible. Based on this, Lu Zhuangzhang from Fujian developed a Romanized alphabet, naming it “China’s First Simplified Phonetic Script,” and authored a textbook titled Yi Mu Liao Ran Chu Jie (Clear at a Glance, Introductory Stage) using the Amoy dialect. In 1906, Lu replaced the Roman letters with simpler strokes (similar to Japanese katakana) and published Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. At the same time, other innovators included Fujian’s Li Jiesan, who authored Quick Script for Fujian Dialect and Self-Taught Phonetic Mandarin Guide; Shanghai’s Shen Xue, who wrote Sheng Shi Yuan Yin (Seven Essays on Phonetics); Hong Kong’s Wang Bingyao, who authored Phonetic Script Manual; and Fujian’s Cai Xiyong, who wrote Quick Script for Spreading Sound. These early inventions used regional dialects and aimed to enable anyone to “read any character without a teacher.” However, these efforts were not adopted by the government and mainly circulated informally among the public.

The second phase of the National Language Movement was the simplified script movement. In 1900, Wang Zhao, a government official, invented the Unified Mandarin Alphabet and gained the support of officials like Yan Xiu and Wu Rulun. It briefly spread across thirteen provinces, from Beijing and Tianjin to Shenyang and Nanjing. Meanwhile, Lao Naixuan published the Complete Manual of Simplified Characters, which added the Nanjing dialect to Wang Zhao’s Beijing dialect, sparking a North-South dispute. Consequently, after the educational reform emphasis on “unity of spoken and written language,” the idea of “national language unification” for improving communication became a new goal. How to unify the language? Reformers even proposed creating an entirely new “unified written and spoken language.” This led to various character creations, including shorthand-like symbols, forms resembling Mongolian script, musical notations, and Romanized letters. Zhang Taiyan advocated for his unique Zhang Cao script.

The National Language Movement entered its third phase and began to take proper shape after the founding of the Republic of China. The Ministry of Education established the “Committee for the Unification of Pronunciation,” chaired by Cai Yuanpei, with Wang Zhao as vice-chair. Representatives from various provinces used a voting process to approve over 6,500 standardized pronunciations and Zhang Taiyan’s phonetic script. The National Language Research Society was founded, proposing goals such as “unity of spoken and written language,” “national language unification,” and replacing “Chinese literature” as a school subject with “National Language.” In 1919, the National Language Unification Preparatory Committee was established as the official body to promote the national language nationwide. Subsequently, the phonetic alphabet was officially announced, and National Pronunciation Dictionary and Revised National Pronunciation Dictionary were published. Primary and secondary schools replaced “Chinese literature” courses with “National Language” courses, with vernacular Chinese promoted as the teaching standard. National language telegraphs were introduced, and local governments, under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, established national language training institutes.

The fourth phase of the National Language Movement saw the official confirmation of the Beijing Mandarin phonological system as the standard for national pronunciation. The Phonetic Alphabet was renamed Phonetic Symbols, and the Romanization system for the national language, created by the “Numeral Society,” began nationwide implementation. In September 1928, the Chinese Dictionary Compilation Office, led by Qian Xuantong and Li Jinxi, was officially established, formulating plans for compiling several dictionaries. In May 1932, The Common Words in National Pronunciation was published and designated by the Ministry of Education as the official dictionary for promoting standardized pronunciation, issued as a ministerial order. In 1949, The Expanded Annotated Common Words in National Pronunciation and The National Language Dictionary were published simultaneously. The National Language Dictionary became the most comprehensive standard reference for the national language at the time.

The fifth phase marked the comprehensive promotion of the national language. In July 1935, the “National Language Unification Preparatory Committee” was dissolved, and the “National Language Promotion Committee” was established. With the nation facing crises, promoting the national language became a critical task for preserving cultural heritage and achieving national unity. In addition to primary and secondary schools, public education was also integrated into the effort to spread the national language. After 1949, Taiwan’s National Language Promotion Committee continued its mission to promote the national language in Taiwan. Meanwhile, on the mainland, following the change in political regime, the original national language system was reformed, giving rise to the new systems of Putonghua and Pinyin. Regardless of the system, these efforts effectively achieved universal literacy and expanded the global influence of the Chinese language.