The National Language Movement and Beijing Normal University

Author: Yun Wang

(Panorama of National Beijing Normal University in 1928)

The National Language Movement officially started gaining momentum with the establishment of the Reading Sound Unification Association in 1912 (hereafter referred to as the “Reading Sound Association”). The first president of the association was Cai Yuanpei, who was also the Minister of Education and President of Peking University at the time. This inherently tied the movement to the educational sector, and among all educational institutions, Beijing Normal University played the most significant role.

The most technically demanding task of the National Language Movement was undoubtedly the establishment of a standard for the national language. Without a standard, implementation and promotion would be impossible. After the first meeting of the Reading Sound Association hastily voted on the pronunciations of 6,500 characters and the Zhuyin alphabet drafted by Zhang Taiyan, creating a complete and standardized system for Chinese characters and language fell to the compilation of dictionaries. This process of compiling and publishing a dictionary was fraught with difficulties, involving academic debates in the early stages and disruptions caused by wars in the later stages, as the government was unable to provide support. Through the persistent efforts of a dedicated group of compilers, the process took over 20 years.

The initial printed version of the National Pronunciation Dictionary was published in 1919. This was based on the resolutions of the first Reading Sound Association and compiled into the Draft Compilation of National Pronunciation by Wu Jingheng. After discussions with Chen Maozhi, Wang Pu, Ma Yuzao, Qian Xuantong, and Li Jinxi, the dictionary was published. This version summarized the results of the association’s efforts but involved little technical refinement. In 1921, the Ministry of Education published the Revised National Pronunciation Dictionary, revised by Qian Xuantong, Wang Yi, and Li Jinhui, who were commissioned by the Pronunciation Review Committee. Both versions of the dictionary standardized the pronunciation of 13,000 Chinese characters. However, as these were based on voting results, they were a mix of southern and northern pronunciations, leading to significant controversy upon publication. Nonetheless, this marked the beginning of government-led unification of Chinese pronunciations. Most of the key participants, apart from Wu Jingheng and Li Jinhui, were Chinese language instructors at Beijing Normal University, highlighting the institution’s pivotal role.

In 1928, the Chinese Dictionary Compilation Office (hereafter referred to as the “Compilation Office”) was officially established after years of preparation. The two chief directors, Li Jinxi and Qian Xuantong, as well as the head of the National Pronunciation General Dictionary Division, Wang Yi, were all faculty members at Beijing Normal University. Additionally, the head of the People’s Dictionary Division, Xiao Jialin, the head of the Collection Department, Sun Kaidi, and compilers such as Wang Chongmin, Wang Shuda, and Wang Shoukang were graduates of Beijing Normal University and students of Li Jinxi and Qian Xuantong. Only Liu Bannong and Bai Dizhou were colleagues from Peking University. Tragically, both Liu and Bai died from illnesses contracted during field research around 1935, leaving the Compilation Office to be supported primarily by the staff of Beijing Normal University.

In 1932, the Dictionary of Commonly Used National Pronunciation Characters (Guoyin Changyong Zihui) was published. It was edited by Qian Xuantong, with co-editors Li Jinxi, Bai Dizhou, and Xiao Jialin, and contributors Zhao Yuanren and Wang Yi. This was the first national pronunciation dictionary to formally adopt the Beijing dialect as the standard. It was officially designated by Minister of Education Zhu Jiahua as the dictionary for promoting standardized pronunciation. This marked the first authoritative national language reference that could serve as a nationwide teaching guide. Except for Bai Dizhou and Zhao Yuanren, the contributors were all associated with Beijing Normal University (BNU). Shortly after the dictionary’s publication, Qian Xuantong proposed a “Plan to Revise and Expand the Dictionary of Commonly Used National Pronunciation Characters,” as the original version was incomplete. Qian was once again chosen to lead this revision effort.

In fact, during the 1920s and 1930s, Qian Xuantong was the academic leader of the National Language Movement. At the time, he also served as the director of the Chinese Department at BNU. Passionate about the movement, Qian once expressed that he would prefer to devote himself entirely to compiling dictionaries rather than teaching, if not for financial constraints. Even in his final days, Qian Xuantong’s dedication was unwavering. On January 14, 1939, just three days before his death, his diary recorded his last work: “Under the lamp, I worked on the radical index of Dictionary of Commonly Used National Pronunciation Characters… Planning to use these radicals to rewrite two works, one very ancient and the other very modern…” The expanded and annotated version of the dictionary, Revised Annotated Dictionary of Commonly Used National Pronunciation Characters, was delayed by the Second Sino-Japanese War and was not published until August 1949. Unfortunately, Qian Xuantong had passed away by then. The main editor of this version was Li Jinxi, with contributors including Wang Yi, He Meicen, Fu Yan, Niu Jichang, Gao Jingcheng, Xu Yishi, Xu Shirong, Sun Chongyi, Wang Shuda, Zhang Qiuzhi, Zhang Weiyu, Li Zengdu, and Zhu Changqi. Among these thirteen contributors, half were either faculty or graduates of BNU. Although Gao Jingcheng graduated from Yenching University, he attended the BNU-affiliated high school and was a student of Wang Shuda. Thus, this dictionary became a collaborative achievement of three generations of teachers and students from BNU.

The Dictionary of the National Language (Guoyu Cidian), considered the pinnacle of the Compilation Office’s work, was published in two editions: an eight-volume version in 1945 and a four-volume version in 1947. The eight-volume edition was completed during the Japanese puppet regime in Beijing. At that time, many scholars had fled south or west, leaving Wang Yi to temporarily lead the Compilation Office. To distinguish it from the original Compilation Office, the eight-volume edition was published under the name “Chinese Dictionary Compilation Office.” Its primary contributors included Wang Yi, Xu Yishi, Sun Chongyi, Wang Shuda, Peng Xinru, Xu Shirong, He Meicen, Fu Yan, and Niu Wenqing, two-thirds of whom were affiliated with BNU. The four-volume edition, a revision of the eight-volume version, removed Japanese vocabulary introduced during the occupation. The original team primarily remained intact, though leadership shifted to Li Jinxi after Wang Yi left for Taiwan.

The publication of the Dictionary of the National Language was the most significant achievement of the National Language Movement. It established the standard for the national language and the norms for compiling national language dictionaries. Taiwan continues to use it to this day, while in mainland China, the simplified characters and Hanyu Pinyin system were developed based on this foundation.

When the Compilation Office was established, it was under the National Language Unification Preparatory Committee (hereafter referred to as the “National Language Committee”). After the National Language Committee was disbanded in 1935, the Compilation Office faced financial difficulties and remained in a state of stagnation. During the Japanese puppet regime in Beijing, the Compilation Office relied entirely on self-raised funds, such as advances on royalties, to compile and publish dictionaries. The process was extremely challenging, and the office was on the verge of disbanding multiple times. After the victory in the Second Sino-Japanese War, Beijing Normal University (BNU) resumed operations, with Li Jinxi serving as the director of the Chinese Department. The Compilation Office was eventually integrated into BNU. In 1956, when the Institute of Linguistics under the Chinese Academy of Sciences was established, the Compilation Office was transferred to the Institute, completing its historical mission.

After the national language standard was established, the main focus shifted to promoting the national language and the Zhuyin phonetic system across the country. In 1935, the Ministry of Education renamed the National Language Committee to the National Language Promotion Committee. The standing members of the committee included Wang Yi, Qian Xuantong, Li Jinxi, Chen Maozhi, and Wei Jiangong, most of whom were associated with BNU. Promoting the national language required efforts in several areas: textbook compilation, teacher training, teaching promotion, and the publication of reading materials. Wang Yi and Li Jinxi, both experienced in textbook compilation, naturally became key contributors, as textbook compilation was also a critical aspect of teacher education, an area where BNU excelled.

To train teachers across the country, the National Language Committee organized numerous training sessions, where Wang Yi, Li Jinxi, and others taught classes. BNU graduates such as Xiao Jialin and Wang Shoukang also became leading contributors to these training programs. Public education was another crucial element. Shandong Province excelled in public education, thanks to the Shandong Provincial Public Education Hall. Its director, Dong Weichuan, was a prominent educator during the Republic of China period. He actively promoted literacy education along with national language and Zhuyin phonetic training. Notably, Dong Weichuan was also a graduate of BNU’s Department of Education and a major contributor to the National Language Weekly.

The National Language Weekly was a dedicated publication for promoting the national language, founded by Qian Xuantong and Li Jinxi in their own capacity. Its contributors included Peking University’s Wei Jiangong, Bai Dizhou, and BNU graduates such as Xiao Jialin. The editor-in-chief of the National Romanized Script Weekly, a publication advocating for the Romanization of the national language, was also Xiao Jialin. The National Language Daily, familiar to many in Taiwan today, originated as a small publication with Zhuyin phonetic annotations in Beijing. Its deputy editor-in-chief, Wang Shoukang, brought it to Taiwan, where it evolved into today’s only newspaper with Zhuyin annotations. This is perhaps a tribute by the Chinese-speaking world to the National Language Movement.

When discussing the dedication of Beijing Normal University (BNU) individuals to the National Language Movement, several key figures must be mentioned:

Li Jinxi was a pioneer who academically advocated for replacing traditional Chinese language courses with national language courses and published groundbreaking works on national language grammar. Organizationally, he served as a bridge between the Nationalist government and individual scholars. In terms of talent development, he worked tirelessly, producing students who were not only active in Beijing but also spread across China, north and south, including his second wife, He Danjiang. During the early stages of the National Language Movement, when professionals were scarce, Li Jinxi utilized his connections to recruit talent. Whether they were colleagues, students, hometown acquaintances, or like-minded individuals, he applied a meritocratic approach and made the best use of their abilities.

Wang Yi was a professor, a government official, and a publisher. He was skilled at leveraging his network in the publishing industry to secure funding and support. At the time, the Nationalist government was severely lacking funds, and those working for the government often had to solve financial issues themselves. Wang Yi’s unwavering determination made him uniquely suited to the labor-intensive and thankless task of dictionary compilation. During the Japanese puppet regime, while many abandoned their ideals in favor of mere survival, Wang Yi remained steadfast in his role as head of the General Dictionary Division at the Compilation Office. In 1938, he expressed his commitment to completing the dictionary to the ailing Qian Xuantong, who was deeply gratified despite his failing health. After the compilation was completed, there were no funds for printing. Wang Yi had to wait for the Commercial Press to improve its financial situation and allow advances on royalties, finally publishing the Dictionary of the National Language (eight-volume edition) in 1945. However, his work under the puppet government led to infamy, forcing him to leave his homeland with his eldest son and settle in Taiwan. In the 1950s, when Taiwan formally published the Dictionary of the National Language, Wang Yi’s name appeared prominently as the editor-in-chief, which must have been his greatest accomplishment.

After graduating from BNU, Wang Shoukang joined the military, serving as a civilian officer in the National Revolutionary Army during the Anti-Japanese War, where he was responsible for teaching literacy to soldiers. Amidst the chaos of war, he remained committed to the phonetic symbols and national language promoted by his teachers, using them to educate soldiers and later carrying this knowledge to Taiwan.

Xiao Jialin and Dong Weichuan, who became brothers-in-law, even involved their wives in dictionary compilation and national language teaching, reflecting their shared passion for the National Language Movement.

BNU played a crucial role in promoting the national language in Taiwan. As early as during the war, while BNU was part of the Northwest Associated University, Li Jinxi specifically established a “National Language Specialized Training Department” to train language teachers for Taiwan’s post-war recovery. This effort continued after the war, with Li Jinxi’s disciples such as Wang Shoukang, Niu Jichang, Wang Shuda, Sun Chongyi, and Xu Shirong serving as instructors. Graduates selected through rigorous interviews, such as Zhai Jianbang, Gong Qingxiang, Feng Changqing, and Zhang Boyu, later became key figures in Taiwan’s national language education. Due to its unique position, Taiwan became a global center for learning the national language before China’s mainland reopened, contributing significantly to the global promotion of the national language.

Why did Beijing Normal University (BNU) become the main stage for the National Language Movement? To answer this, we must go back to 1912. As a hallmark of the formal rise of the National Language Movement, the Reading Sound Unification Association was composed of three types of participants: officials from the Ministry of Education, representatives sent from various provinces, and academic experts from Peking University (PKU) and BNU. It’s evident that the first two groups, aside from a few individuals, were largely there to cast votes, while the third group—the academic experts—formed the core driving force of the movement.

Among these experts, aside from Qian Xuantong and Li Jinxi, PKU representatives Zhao Yuanren, Liu Bannong, and Bai Dizhou played key roles in the creation and revision of phonetic symbols, romanization systems, and in advancing various proposals through the National Language Committee and Ministry of Education. After Liu Bannong and Bai Dizhou passed away, and Zhao Yuanren left Beijing, all subsequent work fell entirely on the shoulders of BNU’s key figures. Moreover, training teachers and promoting teaching methods were specialties of BNU, naturally positioning the university at the forefront of the movement.

While these factors represent the objective reasons, the subjective dedication of BNU members provided their true motivation. I believe the ending lines of the BNU school anthem at the time perfectly capture their sense of mission and responsibility: “Expand education, prosper the people, and unite in this shared commitment to succeed.” It was precisely this belief that inspired the individuals at BNU to take on the responsibility of advancing the National Language Movement as their own mission. Through relentless effort, they made contributions that remain indelible in history.

(1928 Graduation Photo of the Chinese Department at National Beijing Normal University: Li Jinxi is third from the left in the front row, Qian Xuantong is sixth from the left, and Wang Shuda is second from the right)

References:

Outline of the History of the National Language Movement by Li Jinxi, Commercial Press (May 2011).

Revised Annotated Dictionary of Commonly Used National Pronunciation Characters, compiled by the Chinese Dictionary Compilation Office, distributed by Commercial Press (First Edition, 1949).

Graduates’ Record of National Beijing Normal University (1928).

Diary of Qian Xuantong (Edited Edition), Chief Editor: Yang Tianshi, Peking University Press (2014).