Author: Yun Wang

Mr. Zhang Yilin was elected Vice President when the National Language Research Society was established and was appointed President when the National Language Unification Preparatory Committee (hereafter referred to as the “National Language Committee”) was founded. Unlike most figures in the National Language Movement, Zhang Yilin was neither a scholar like Qian Xuantong nor an academic bureaucrat like Wu Zhihui. He became involved in the National Language Movement simply because he headed the Ministry of Education. Nonetheless, he made significant contributions to the movement with his insights and efforts.

The phonetic alphabet approved at the 1913 “Conference for Pronunciation Unification” was shelved by the Ministry of Education amidst political turmoil, left to decay with no one caring for it. In October 1915, Zhang Yilin took office at the Ministry of Education. Upon reading a petition from Wang Pu and others, he vigorously promoted the phonetic alphabet. He donated 200 silver yuan monthly to support the Phonetic Alphabet Training Center and, in December, petitioned President Yuan Shikai for official approval of the initiative. The petition stated:

“After a few months of training, primary schools and open-air schools should be established in each district for school-aged children not yet enrolled and older illiterate people. The Education Bureau and Police Department should coordinate these efforts, mandating attendance to teach this alphabet. Simultaneously, books and newspapers using the alphabet should be printed so that all communication can be conducted through this script. The program will initially be rolled out in the capital and surrounding regions, with provinces sending teacher trainees to Beijing for practice. Using language to reform writing and writing to unify language, we aim to achieve widespread adoption within ten years.”

In just a few sentences, Zhang Yilin outlined the rationale and method for popularizing the phonetic alphabet with precision. The following year, as a Jiangsu native, Zhang co-founded the National Language Research Society with Yan Xiu and Wu Zhihui, serving as Vice President. On February 18, 1917, the society convened at the Academic Club outside Xuanwu Gate, drafting nine guiding principles. The mission was: “To research the national language, select a standard, and provide it for adoption by the education sector.” As an academic organization, the society embraced scholars during the waves of the “Literary Revolution” and “National Language Unification.” By 1920, it boasted 12,000 members, wielding significant influence. In 1919, Zhang Yilin and Cai Yuanpei proposed operational strategies for the society, including compiling books and newspapers in the national language, which received unanimous approval.

The National Language Committee was also established in 1919, with Zhang Yilin appointed as President. This was the administrative body tasked with promoting the national language under the Nationalist Government. From August 11 to 13 of that year, Zhang published a serialized article in Ta Kung Pao titled “My Views on National Language Education,” using simple language to explain the committee’s primary functions to the public. He compared language education to charity, stating that those who do not understand language are like the deaf, mute, and blind, unable to communicate and suffering greatly. He argued that enabling communication for those who cannot is the ultimate act of charity.

He illustrated his point with examples:

“On the street, a sign reads ‘Keep to the Left,’ but a rickshaw driver veers right because he cannot read. In a park, a sign clearly marked ‘Toilet’ is ignored, and people relieve themselves outside because they cannot read. Thus, police regulations and government decrees are effectively for internal use only, as the general populace cannot read them.”

Citing statistics, he noted that in countries like England, France, and the U.S., only a few in a hundred are illiterate, while in Japan, 90% of the population is literate. In contrast, in China, while exact numbers are lacking, it is said that only seven in a thousand can read. Addressing misunderstandings about the phonetic alphabet, he recounted:

“I recall the educational guidelines formulated by Zhang Wenxiang, which required schools across provinces to unify literary language, yet this was unresolved by the end of the Qing Dynasty. Only Mr. Wang Xiaohang’s Mandarin Alphabet was tested in places like Beijing and Baoding. One day, when County Magistrate Qi Zhenyan visited a rural family, the farmer was working three miles away, and his wife and child were at home. The wife scribbled a few ‘heavenly script-like’ characters on rough paper, asking the child to fetch her husband. Soon, the farmer returned. Magistrate Qi saw the note and realized it was written in the Mandarin Alphabet.”

On vernacular Chinese, he shared his personal experience:

“At the age of eleven or twelve, I could read three or four volumes of Journey to the West or Romance of the Three Kingdoms in a day, but could only manage thirty pages of the Thirteen Classics with Commentary. Clearly, reading vernacular works is dozens of times easier than reading texts with complex literary language. If this saved effort were redirected to studying Western languages and sciences, wouldn’t it be like replacing a cumbersome mule cart with an automobile?”

Though not a scholar himself, Zhang Yilin actively advocated for the National Language Movement as President. The following year, he petitioned the Ministry of Education to promote the national language and provided a list of 200 national language materials for educational institutions to adopt.

In 1925, when efforts to promote the national language faced backlash, critics argued that “vernacular writing incorporates crude and colloquial expressions, lacking the refinement of classical Chinese, which is capable of lasting appeal.” Therefore, they opposed promoting vernacular Chinese. In response, Zhang Yilin, representing the National Language Committee, wrote to the Minister and Vice Minister of Education, urging adherence to the principles of the National Language Movement. In his letter, Zhang wrote:

“…Elementary and short-term national education, according to current policies, is defined as compulsory education. Therefore, all citizens of the Republic of China, regardless of their social status or environment, should universally receive this education. Instead of spending significant time learning the complexity of classical Chinese, why not let them use the most economical time to learn the simplicity of vernacular Chinese? Theoretically, classical Chinese is like translating spoken language into written form, involving two transitions. In contrast, vernacular Chinese directly translates speech into writing, requiring only one transition. Which is easier or harder needs no elaboration.

Moreover, in practice, over the past few years since replacing ‘Chinese Literature’ with ‘National Language’ in elementary schools, experienced teachers have universally acknowledged that children learn vernacular Chinese with half the effort compared to classical Chinese.

Education is vital to the nation’s fate; writing is not merely a utilitarian tool. Since replacing ‘Chinese Literature’ with ‘National Language’ in elementary schools has been formally established as policy, but many people still fail to understand its significance, it is necessary to reiterate the directive repeatedly. This will ensure clarity for all and prevent the policy from being undermined. It will reduce resistance and facilitate implementation.

I suggest that, in this period of reform, the Ministry of Education reiterate the 1920 regulation to replace ‘Chinese Literature’ with ‘National Language’ in elementary schools. Furthermore, it should explicitly prohibit the use of classical Chinese textbooks in primary schools. This would ensure uniformity in understanding and eliminate divergence, thereby dispelling erroneous theories. Such a measure is fundamental to nation-building.”

At the time, Zhang Shizhao, an opponent of the National Language Movement, served as Minister of Education. Despite this, Zhang Yilin stood firm in his role as the President of the National Language Committee, defending the movement’s progress with reasoned arguments.

Subsequently, Zhang Yilin called for the establishment of National Language Guidance Teams in 1924 to advance language education. In September 1926, he was elected Vice President of the National Language Education Promotion Association. After the reorganization of the National Language Committee in 1928, he remained a member. In 1939, while residing in Hong Kong, he participated in the founding ceremony of the Hong Kong Society for New Scripts and delivered a speech. Even in 1943, the year of his death, he attended the third plenary session of the National Language Promotion Committee, demonstrating his unwavering enthusiasm for the National Language Movement.

In a eulogy for Zhang Yilin, Dong Biwu noted, “Among all the causes he advocated throughout his life, one stood out as his foremost commitment. In recent years, he wrote extensively on this matter—that was the reform of the written language.” Reflecting on Zhang Yilin’s lifetime achievements, he was not only a distinguished politician and patriot but also a tireless advocate for Chinese education, with his involvement in the National Language Movement stemming from his dedication to the nation’s educational development.

Born in Jiangsu in 1868, Zhang Yilin, also known by his courtesy name Zhongren, was a prodigy. At the age of 11, he passed the xiucai (county-level scholar) exam, and at 14, Zuo Zongtang praised his exam essay, remarking, “This boy will have a bright future.” At 17, he passed the juren (provincial-level scholar) exam, and at 18, he returned home to teach after his father’s death. In 1895, he founded the Su Study Society, delved into Western studies, and advocated for reform and self-strengthening. In 1903, Zhang was selected as the second-place winner in the Special Economic Examination (established during the Hundred Days’ Reform to recruit individuals knowledgeable about international affairs). He was presented to Emperor Guangxu and subsequently recruited by Zhang Zhidong and Yuan Shikai, marking the beginning of his political career. Initially overseeing educational affairs and later expanding into multiple domains, Zhang’s political work deepened his passion for education.

As a political figure, Zhang Yilin was astute and clear-sighted. In 1906, he advised Yuan Shikai to prepare for constitutional governance and, upon gaining approval, directly participated in drafting new administrative regulations. In 1911, he supported Jiangsu’s declaration of independence. When Yuan Shikai became president, Zhang served as a confidential secretary in the Presidential Office, effectively one of Yuan’s trusted aides. He criticized the Kuomintang (KMT) for undermining the constitutional “separation of powers” system and bribing legislators. When Yuan attempted to restore the monarchy, Zhang strongly opposed it, resigned, and became Minister of Education. After Yuan was forced to revoke the imperial system, Zhang drafted Yuan’s public announcement and mediated the transfer of military authority to Duan Qirui’s cabinet. During Feng Guozhang and Xu Shichang’s presidencies, Zhang served as secretary-general and political advisor, advocating for resolving national divisions through north-south negotiations. Later, he withdrew from politics and returned to his hometown in Jiangsu, engaging as a civilian in various organizations, mediating disputes, and aiding disaster relief. He held roles such as advisor to the Chinese Aeronautical Society, research director of the Su Society, and legislator in Jiangsu.

In 1924, after the Beijing coup, he met Feng Yuxiang to appeal for peace. In 1926, amidst widespread warlord conflicts, he advocated regional governance, where military authorities should support civilian administration. He also criticized the government for implementing “pseudo-democracy in name but actual militarism.” When Japan invaded northeast China, he called for resistance. In 1932, he published Three Negations: Also Known as Trans-Party Ideals, urging the KMT to uphold civil rights. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, he organized an anti-Japanese rescue group, the “Old Men’s Army,” and hid in Qionglong Temple disguised as a monk to aid refugees. He served as a member of the National Political Council for three terms, consistently upholding his commitment to constitutional governance. In 1940, he attended a Hong Kong chapter meeting of the Chinese Young Journalists’ Association to continue advocating constitutional principles. At age 71, in 1939, he conducted a field study in Dihua, Xinjiang.

Zhang Yilin’s contributions to cultural and educational development were particularly significant. As Minister of Education, he prioritized teacher benefits, compulsory national education, textbook compilation, banning political figures from teaching positions, and implementing physical education programs. In 1921, he was appointed chairman of the board of directors for the Republic of China University in Beijing, where he played a critical but thankless role in securing funding and resolving student protests. Zhang actively engaged in educational practices, attending events like the inauguration of the National Self-Government Academy in 1924 and being appointed to the Jiangsu Educational Funding Committee in 1926, supported by Southeast University, Tongji University, and other southern institutions. He delivered speeches on civic knowledge, promoted public education, advocated vocational training, and founded institutions for disadvantaged children. He also supported women’s education as the chairman of Suzhou Leyi Girls’ School and raised funds to establish schools for the blind and mute. He championed cultural preservation by opposing grave robbers and advocating the protection of historical sites. In 1937, he was a founding participant of the Chinese National Studies Society.

If scholars like Qian Xuantong and Li Jinxi were the foundation of the National Language Movement, Zhang Yilin, as an official, served as a critical bridge. He facilitated communication between scholars and the government, channeling the momentum of the language movement. When obstacles arose, he played a guiding and supportive role. A pragmatist, Zhang resigned when the Beiyang government’s policies conflicted with his values. However, he never hesitated to mediate or advise when the government was in crisis. Living through turbulent times, he consistently sought peaceful solutions for his homeland and nation, actively contributing to practical efforts.

When Zhang passed away, Chiang Kai-shek sent Wang Shijie to pay respects, and Mao Zedong sent a condolence telegram to his family. Chiang wrote in his eulogy:

“… You stood tall, emerging from Wu. Immersed in classics, you revived Confucianism. Your character, noble as jade; your talent, abundant as timber. Though involved in politics, you remained impartial. Unable to fulfill your ambitions, you suffered greatly. You left officialdom, indifferent to fame. Returning to your hometown, you sought peace amidst chaos. What we value most is your dedication to unity and constitutional reform. Your insightful proposals and patriotic sincerity inspired many, and your loyalty will forever be remembered…”

Zhang Yilin was buried in his hometown of Wu. His tombstone reads, “The Grave of Mr. Zhang Zhongren, National Political Council Member.” This simple yet modest epitaph serves as the best summary of his life’s work.

References:

Chronology of Zhang Yilin (《张一麐年谱》), authored by Li Shaobing, Chen Shixuan, and Zhang Wan’an, published by Zhonghua Book Company.

Outline of the History of the National Language Movement (《国语运动史纲》), authored by Li Jinxi, published by The Commercial Press.