Author: Yun Wang

The advocates of the Mandarin language movement were often promoters of new ideas, while the leading figure of the simplified character movement, Lao Naixuan, was truly a relic of the late Qing Dynasty. Lao passed away in Qingdao on July 21, 1921. He told his children to wear the formal robes of a first-rank official from the previous dynasty, to demonstrate his loyalty to the Qing and an unforgotten allegiance to his former emperor. On New Year’s Day that year, Puyi had personally inscribed a plaque, “Loyal Heart and Yellow Hair,” as an honor for him.

Lao Naixuan (1843-1921), styled Jixuan and known by the courtesy name Yuchu, was from Tongxiang, Zhejiang, with ancestral roots in Yangxin, Shandong. He became a jinshi (the highest and most prestigious degree) in the 10th year of the Tongzhi era (1871) and served as a county magistrate in various places including Linyu, Nanpi, Wanquan, Lixian, Wuqiao, and Qingyuan. He founded the Jifuz University Hall and served as the principal of Nanyang Public School, Zhejiang University Hall, and the supervisor of the Beijing Imperial University Hall.

Lao Naixuan did not have experience studying abroad nor did he hold high official positions, but his family was well-educated, with a tradition of scholarly achievement. Lao’s mother came from a distinguished family; she was well-versed in literature and poetry and authored “Poems from the Coming Bird Immortal Pavilion.” Influenced deeply by his mother, Lao later paid particular attention to enlightenment education. During his childhood, he spent most of his time living with his mother’s family, having resided in places like Dantu, Zhenze, Wuxi, Jiangning, Suzhou, Changshu, Taizhou, Tianjin, and Baoding, where he had a dozen or so tutors who spoke different dialects, leading to a situation where “three miles differ in tune, ten miles vary in sound,” igniting his curiosity about phonetics. He enjoyed a game called “shezi,” a phonetic game based on rhyme charts that emerged during the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The game involved two players: one would randomly select a character and produce sounds of varying frequencies using methods like beating drums, clapping, or snapping fingers, according to the rhyme chart rules, to represent different phonetic elements (such as tone, vowel, and pitch). The other player would identify these phonetic elements to form the desired pronunciation of the character. Gifted with intelligence, Lao Naixuan gradually mastered the principles of Chinese phonetics through this game, thereby forging an unbreakable bond with the study of rhymes.

In 1900, shortly after Wang Zhao’s publication of “Mandarin Combined Sound Letters,” Lao Naixuan took notice, feeling that it aligned closely with his own ideas. However, he believed Wang Zhao’s plan was unsuitable for implementation in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang regions; thus, he dedicated himself to compiling the “Complete Chart of Simplified Characters,” which was published in Nanjing in 1907. In this book, the phonetic chart of Beijing speech entirely adhered to Wang Zhao’s scheme; in addition to the fifty initials of Beijing phonetics, there were six added initials and twelve rhymes along with three… In the beginning, he created the “Ningyin Score”; adding a total of sixty initials and eighteen rhymes resulted in the “Wuyin Score.” Finally, after expanding to eighty-three initials and twenty rhymes, it became the “Min-Guangyin Score,” summing up to one hundred sixteen initials and twenty rhymes, forming the “Complete Score of Simplified Characters,” which includes various local dialects across the country. Lao Naixuan advocated that southerners should first learn the simplified characters of southern pronunciations for practical application, and after mastering them, they could learn the Beijing pronunciation for the sake of unification.

In 1905, Lao Naixuan petitioned the Viceroy of the Two Rivers, Zhou Fu, the Jiangsu Provincial Governor, Chen Kuailong, and the Anhui Provincial Governor, En Ming, to establish a school for teaching simplified characters. The school focused solely on simplified characters and targeted impoverished children, allowing them to work half a day and learn half a day. Once the promotion of simplified characters reached a certain level and the literacy rate improved, the general populace would be able to read newspapers and understand current affairs, making widespread education an inevitable success that would enlighten the people. Thanks to Lao Naixuan’s efforts, simplified character education was increasingly promoted.

At this time, the debate over the unification of the national language was intense, with the main focal point being whether it should “strengthen the north and uplift the south” or “draw the south back to the north.” Regarding simplified characters, Lao Naixuan was considered by figures such as Li Jinxie to be an ally of Wang Zhao. In fact, Wang Zhao had visited Nanjing to investigate the simplified character school and disagreed with Lao Naixuan’s “two-step approach.” He even published a commentary titled “Comments on Lao Naixuan’s ‘Unified Voice Simplified Characters’” in the “Zhongwai Daily,” stating, “Now, adopting phonetic simplified characters means adding letters haphazardly, which seriously harms the unity of the language…” He accused Lao Naixuan of the unforgivable sin of splitting the Chinese language and script. Lao Naixuan replied, “Both simplifying writing and unifying language are urgent priorities for today’s China. However, to achieve simplification of writing, one cannot hastily demand unification of language. To pursue language unification, one should first seek the simplification of writing.” He believed that forcibly promoting the official language was no different for southerners than learning the old-style characters, which are primarily ideograms. If everyone in the world could spell text using their dialects, even if they did not understand the official pronunciation, it would still be beneficial.

With his recommendation, on May 23, 1908, Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi summoned the anxious Lao Naixuan to the Renshou Hall of the Summer Palace. Regarding the simplified character school, Lao Naixuan stated: “The simplified character school teaches that simplified characters are phonetic letters. Chinese characters are difficult to recognize, which is why there are so few who can read them. Children must attend school from a young age, and it often takes several years for them to have a basic understanding of writing. Rural people lack the ability to study, so the number of those who can recognize characters is low, and they cannot grasp the principles…” The text is as follows:

“Education is difficult to popularize. Simplified characters are easier to recognize; people who study can learn them in just a few days, and those who cannot recognize characters can learn in a few months at most—there’s nothing that they can’t learn. Once they have learned, they can write letters and read books. Then, using this, they can create newspapers and books for others to read, which will help everyone understand the principles.”

The Empress Dowager said: “There are too few literate people in China. If we could increase the number of people who recognize characters across the world, that would be great.”

Lao Naixuan reported: “The simplified character school in Jiangnan has been very effective. I’ve heard that Zhili and Fengtian have also established such schools, but other provinces have not yet requested this.”

The Empress Dowager said: “If the Emperor promotes these simplified characters nationwide, it will ensure that tens of millions of people can recognize characters and understand the principles. If that is achieved, governing the world will be much easier.”

On this occasion, Lao Naixuan submitted a petition titled “Proposal for the Promotion of Simplified Character Education,” explaining the importance and necessity of promoting simplified characters and the results achieved, suggesting that it be implemented nationwide. After reading it, Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the Ministry of Education to discuss the implementation of simplified characters. Lao Naixuan finally saw a glimmer of hope. However, shortly thereafter, both Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi passed away, and there were divisions within the Ministry regarding the promotion of simplified characters. Lao Naixuan’s petition went undiscussed and unreported.

At the end of the year, with the ascension of Emperor Xuantong, Lao Naixuan saw hope once more. The following year, he again petitioned for the implementation of a Mandarin phonetic alphabet and submitted the “Proposal for the Addition of Simplified Characters to the Simple Literacy School Curriculum and the Flexibility in Local Autonomy for Voter Qualifications,” indicating that simplified characters were an effective tool for promoting universal education. He reiterated the usefulness of phonetic tools from Britain, America, and Japan for popularization, and the successes achieved previously, earnestly requesting the Ministry to discuss simplified characters. Although he spoke sincerely and from the heart, he ultimately failed to sway the heart of Regent Zaifeng, ending up in a situation where his requests were neither discussed nor reported.

Seeing that the court did not support him, Lao Naixuan established the Simplified Character Research Society in Beijing. He leveraged his connections to gather talents to research simplified characters, including many literati and officials from the Ministry. On March 13, 1910, the Simplified Character Research Society held its first meeting at Wang Rongbao’s residence in Shiqiao.

In October 1910, the Qing court established the Advisory Council, and Lao Naixuan was appointed as a scholar and member of the Advisory Council and a consultant dispatched by the Ministry of Border Affairs. He again used this platform to make a final effort, actively advocating for the promotion of simplified character education. In January 1911, the Advisory Council finally discussed the report on simplified characters.” The discussion to change the phonetic representation of simplified characters to “phonetic symbols” received the support of the majority of the legislators. In his speech, he elaborated on his views and the arduous journey of advising the court, concluding with the line, “If we have tens of millions of enlightened citizens in China, wouldn’t that be invincible in the world?” In August, the Central Education Conference passed the “Unified National Language Bill,” which, in the form of a government proposal, divided the unification of the national language into five steps: investigation, selection, compilation, standardization of phonetic tones and speech, phonetic notation, and dissemination. Thus, the simplified character movement, which Lao Naixuan had fought for six years, finally commenced at the national level. However, the beginning of a new era caused this hard-won “Unified National Language Bill” to face further setbacks.

Lao Naixuan’s enthusiasm for the simplified character movement stemmed from his love for education. At the age of 23, he passed the provincial examination and qualified for an official position, but there were no openings, and he had a family to support. That year, he was hired as a tutor for the three sons of the governor of Baoding, Borjigit Gongjun. While imparting knowledge, Lao Naixuan also taught the three boys to aim high and achieve great things in the future. This marked the beginning of Lao Naixuan’s educational career.

In 1884, while serving in Wan County, Lao Naixuan helped solve issues related to staffing and funding at the Yanping Academy, increasing teacher salaries and student scholarships, and invested in purchasing books, thereby revitalizing the academic atmosphere of the academy. In 1891, when he served as the county magistrate of Wu Bridge, he also took on the role of a teaching supervisor, responsible for the sacrifices at the Confucian Temple and the education of county students. He was particularly concerned about the education of scholars and personally lectured at the Lanyang Academy, purchasing various books to be housed in the Confucian Temple for public reading, broadening people’s horizons. He also placed great importance on communication with students, establishing a foundation for practical learning at the Lanyang Academy.

In 1893, in his third year as the county magistrate of Wu Bridge, Lao Naixuan believed that universal education for the common people should be prioritized. He established a community school in Wu Bridge, intending to emulate the ancient private school system for public education. In his article “On the Establishment of Community Schools,” he stated: “For among the world, the number of outstanding citizens is few, while common people are many; the outstanding citizens receive education, while the common people do not; thus, the educated populace is small, while the uneducated populace is large. To scatter hundreds of millions of uneducated people throughout the world and expect an orderly society is indeed hard to foresee.” Lao Naixuan believed that for a country to achieve self-improvement and development, it was essential to prioritize education. The education level of the entire populace, “teaching the common people so that everyone knows the way of being human,” is necessary to form a good social atmosphere. Thus, he mobilized the students of Lanyang Academy to conduct surveys on the private school system in the towns and villages of Wu Qiao. Considering the special circumstances of the farmers, he arranged for the teaching in private schools to take place during the winter agricultural slack season, teaching simple and understandable content such as the “Discipline for Students” and “Elementary Learning.” The students included both children and adults, and the teaching materials were provided free of charge. “This not only opened the way for today’s short-term public school education.” (Said by the Republican scholar Chen Xunqi)

In 1898, Lao Naixuan was commissioned to establish Jifud University, which was the first new-style school in Baoding and also one of the first higher education institutions in China, established in the same year as the Beijing University. Although Lao Naixuan was an old-style literati, he clearly recognized that “today’s global communication and the eastern spread of western learning make it insufficient to cling to old knowledge.” From the perspective of course offerings, both Chinese and Western subjects were taught, including Chinese literature, ethics, classics, English, mathematics, and physics and chemistry, with original English textbooks introduced. He emphasized faculty quality, addressed the needs for school buildings and student scholarships, and even considered graduates’ career paths, which helped the school gain a notable reputation. Unfortunately, the school was destroyed by fire during the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900.

In the spring of 1901, while recuperating in Shanghai, Lao Naixuan was invited to serve as the principal of Nanyang Public School. Although he only held the position for three months due to health reasons, he proposed a study abroad program to select outstanding students to further their education in England, and he also suggested establishing political classes and elementary schools, which had a positive impact on the institution. By the end of the year, after recovering his health, he assumed the role of principal at Zhejiang Qiushi University.

In 1904, at the age of 62, Lao Naixuan served as an advisor to the Governor of Liangjiang, assisting Zhou Fu in promoting new-style education in Jiangnan: renovating and expanding multiple schools in Nanjing, renaming Sanjiang Normal School to Liangjiang Normal School, transforming Gezhi Academy into a practical school for agriculture and commerce, and establishing schools such as Jiangnan Silk and Sericulture School, elementary and higher primary schools, a research institute for education, a business school, and Jiangning’s first women’s school.

It is incredible that Lao Naixuan, who took upon himself the responsibility of promoting simplified characters, universal education, and raising the intellectual level of the populace, was also a staunch adherent of Confucianism and the Qing court. In 1861, at the age of 19, he married Kong Yunhui, a descendant of the “Sage of the Ages,” Confucius, which he regarded as a great honor, and his thoughts became… Influenced by the Confucius Mansion, perhaps this is the important reason behind his “loyalty to the emperor” and “respect for Confucius.”

During the late Qing Dynasty, in a legal battle known in later years as the “debate on propriety and law,” Lao Naixuan played a tragic and absurd role. The faction led by Shen Jiaben, which advocated legal principles, and the faction led by Lao Naixuan, which upheld the teachings of propriety, argued incessantly, with the most heated dispute being over the issue of “adultery without a husband.” At a meeting, Lao Naixuan stated: “Adultery without a husband is generally considered a crime in Chinese society; this reasoning is very common, not profound or subtle at all.” After repeated debates, the matter ended hastily with a compromise from the legal faction, resulting in the addition of five clauses to the new penal code, which defined the crime of adultery involving married women.

In 1913, after the death of Empress Dowager Longyu, the 71-year-old Lao Naixuan hurried to Chongling, donned the robes of a Qing official, performed three kneelings and nine prostrations at the ceremonial altar, and wept on the ground. Sun Baoqi, the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Republic of China, came to pay his respects in a suit and bowed three times, but was humiliated by Lao Naixuan and other remnants of the Qing Dynasty.

After the founding of the Republic, Lao Naixuan refused to take on public office. In 1912, the Ministry of Education proposed to hold a conference on the unification of pronunciation. Wu Zhihui, who was in charge of the matter, personally visited Laishui to invite Lao Naixuan, who declined the invitation. Although he was eager for the reform of the Chinese language—a cause he had devoted ten years to—he considered himself a remnant of the Qing Dynasty and absolutely would not participate in any meetings held by the Republic’s government. He privately wrote to Wu Zhihui, mailing his works including “Simplified Character Phonetics,” “Insights into the Same Rhyme,” and “Continuations of Simplified Character Records,” and even sent his daughter, Lao Xiang, to listen in on the conference.

In his later years, Lao Naixuan chose Qingdao as his place of residence, where he accomplished two significant things. One was collaborating with the German Wei Lixian to translate the “I Ching” into German. After the publication of the German version of the “I Ching,” the famous psychologist Carl Jung wrote a preface and recommended it, stating in the preface: “I am not a sinologist, but I have personally encountered this great and extraordinary classic, and I deeply realize that his translation of the ‘I Ching’ is incomparable in the West and holds considerable cultural significance.” Wei Lixian also founded the Wei Lixian Academy in Qingdao, primarily to train teachers for all the “Montessori Schools” in Qingdao, for which he was granted a fourth-rank official insignia by the Qing court. The society for the promotion of Confucianism initiated by Lao Naixuan was established at the Wei Lixian Academy, where he emphasized that this society is focused on “respecting Confucius.” The words serve as a declaration, whose connotation relies on the teachings of Confucius for practical application, emphasizing the moral cultivation of Confucianism. After the Xinhai Revolution, a group of remnants from the Qing Dynasty gathered here. They were once concerned about the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and feared the recurrence of book burning, so they built a library within the Confucius Society. This library was primarily based on the collection of books left by the missionary Huazhi’an, who was among the earliest to come to Qingdao, supplemented by new purchases and donations from members, totaling 12,000 volumes. Due to the Confucius Society’s elitist characteristics, it frequently attracted scholars from Japan and Europe.

In January 1917, during the birthday of Puyi, Lao Naixuan went to Beijing to conspire with Wei Lixian, intending for Puyi to marry a German princess in exchange for Germany’s support for the restoration of the Qing dynasty. This event is recorded in Puyi’s “My First Half of Life”: “Lao Naixuan quietly brought a letter from Qingdao, the sender’s name I can no longer recall, only that he was a German, representing the German royal family and expressing willingness to support the Qing restoration. Lao Naixuan believed this was a great opportunity, and if the two royal families of Germany and Qing could arrange a marriage, the chances would be even better.” Later, the Zhang Xun restoration event caused Lao Naixuan to become involved in “countercurrent.”

Academically, besides phonology, Lao Naixuan had a particular fondness for arithmetic. In 1876, he wrote “A Brief Calculation Method,” and later authored “Research and Explanation of Ancient Calculation” in six volumes among other works on mathematics. In 1898, he also compiled a teaching book for children on calculation called “Calculative Elementary Lessons,” which included formulas, place value, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Throughout his life, Lao Naixuan accomplished many beneficial things. In 1873, he co-edited the “Jifu Tongzhi” with Huang Pengnian. He investigated the land enclosure case of Liwangfu in Chechang Village, Laishui County, reducing the rent and burdens for villagers. During a severe drought in Baoding, he established a congee association with fellow townsmen to sell congee at low prices to the poor. As the county magistrate in Linyi, he opened his office to the public, ensured government transparency, punished illegal monks, and ran a private school to educate children. He was broad-minded and insightful in both domestic and foreign affairs. At that time, due to his particularly clear understanding of the Boxer Rebellion, he maintained strict governance to ensure that no disturbances occurred in the areas under his administration.

As an advocate and pioneer of the national language movement, we should not overlook Lao Naixuan’s efforts and intelligence in promoting the simplified characters movement. Although he was a rather controversial figure, he… He is indeed an independent person with his own beliefs and pursuits, deserving of respect.

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Laonai Xuan visit to Laoshan in 1919

References:

“Promotion of Laonai Xuan” by Chen Yong, Huawen Publishing House, 2022

“Outline of the History of the National Language Movement” by Li Jinxi, Commercial Press, 2011